Turgenev Lebedev Yuri Vladimirovich
Search for a new hero. Novel "On the Eve". Break with Sovremennik
In a letter to I. S. Aksakov in November 1859, Turgenev said this about the concept of the novel “On the Eve”: “The basis of my story is the idea of the need for consciously heroic natures in order for things to move forward.” What did Turgenev mean by consciously heroic natures and how did he treat them?
In parallel with his work on the novel, Turgenev writes the article “Hamlet and Don Quixote,” which is the key to the typology of all Turgenev’s heroes and clarifies the writer’s views on the public figure of our time, “consciously heroic nature.” The images of Hamlet and Don Quixote receive a very broad interpretation from Turgenev. Humanity has always gravitated towards these types of characters, as if they were two oppositely charged poles, although complete Hamlets, just like complete Don Quixotes, do not exist in life. What properties of human nature do these heroes embody?
In Hamlet the principle of analysis is brought to the point of tragedy; in Don Quixote the principle of enthusiasm is brought to the point of comedy. In Hamlet the main thing is thought, and in Don Quixote it is will. In this dichotomy, Turgenev sees the tragic side of human life: “For deeds, will is needed, for deeds, thought is needed, but thought and will have become separated and are becoming more separated every day...”
The article has a modern socio-political aspect. Characterizing the type of Hamlet, Turgenev keeps in mind the “superfluous man”, the noble hero, while by Don Quixote he means a new generation of public figures. In the drafts of the article, Don Quixote is called a “democrat” for a reason. True to his social instinct, Turgenev waits for the emergence of consciously heroic natures from among the commoners.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Hamlet and Don Quixote?
Hamlets are egoists and skeptics, they are always running around with themselves and do not find anything in the world to which they could “cleave their souls.” Warring against lies, the Hamlets become the main champions of the truth, which they nevertheless cannot believe. Their tendency to overanalyze causes them to doubt what is good. Therefore, the Hamlets are deprived of an active, effective principle; their intellectual strength turns into weakness of will.
Unlike Hamlet, Don Quixote is completely devoid of egoism, concentration on himself, on his thoughts and feelings. He sees the purpose and meaning of existence not in himself, but in the truth that is “outside the individual person.” Don Quixote is ready to sacrifice himself for her triumph. With his enthusiasm, devoid of any doubt, any reflection, he is able to ignite the hearts of the people and lead them behind him.
But constant concentration on one idea, “constant striving for the same goal” gives some monotony to his thoughts and one-sidedness to his mind. As a historical figure, Don Quixote inevitably finds himself in a tragic situation: the historical consequences of his activities are always at odds with the ideal he serves and the goal he pursues in the struggle. The dignity and greatness of Don Quixote “lies in the sincerity and strength of conviction itself... and the result is in the hand of fate.”
Reflections on the essence of the character of a public figure, on the strengths and weaknesses of consciously heroic natures, found a direct echo in the novel “On the Eve,” published in the January issue of the Russian Messenger magazine for 1860.
N.A. Dobrolyubov, who devoted a special article to the analysis of this novel, “When will the real day come?”, gave a classic definition of Turgenev’s artistic talent, seeing in him a writer sensitive to social problems. His next novel, “On the Eve,” once again brilliantly justified this reputation. Dobrolyubov noted the clear arrangement of the main characters in it. The central heroine Elena Stakhova is faced with a choice; a young scientist, historian Bersenev, a future artist, a man of art Shubin, an official Kurnatovsky, who is successfully starting his official career, and, finally, a man of civic feat, the Bulgarian revolutionary Insarov, are vying for the place of her chosen one. The social and everyday plot of the novel is complicated by a symbolic subtext: Elena Stakhova personifies young Russia on the eve of upcoming changes. Who does she need more now: people of science or art, government officials or heroic natures ready for civic feats? Elena's choice of Insarova gives an unambiguous answer to this question.
Dobrolyubov noted that in Elena Stakhova “that vague longing for something was reflected, that almost unconscious, but irresistible need for a new life, new people, which now covers the entire Russian society, and not even just the so-called educated one.”
In describing Elena's childhood, Turgenev draws attention to her deep closeness to the people. With secret respect and fear, she listens to the stories of the beggar girl Katya about life “at all God’s will” and imagines herself as a wanderer who left her father’s house and wanders along the roads. From a folk source, the Russian dream of truth came to Elena, which must be sought far, far away, with a wanderer’s staff in her hands. From the same source - the willingness to sacrifice oneself for the sake of others, for the sake of the high goal of saving people in trouble, the suffering and the unfortunate. It is no coincidence that in conversations with Insarov, Elena remembers the barman Vasily, “who pulled a legless old man out of a burning hut and almost died himself.”
Elena's appearance resembles a bird ready to take off, and the heroine walks “quickly, almost swiftly, leaning forward a little.” Elena’s vague melancholy and dissatisfaction are also connected with the theme of flight: “Why do I look with envy at the flying birds? It seems that I would fly with them, fly - where, I don’t know, just far, far from here.” The desire for flight is also manifested in the heroine’s unaccountable actions: “She looked for a long time at the dark, low-hanging sky; then she stood up, with a movement of her head, brushed her hair away from her face and, without knowing why, stretched out her naked, cold hands to him, to this sky.” The alarm passes - “the unflying wings descend.” And at the fateful moment, at the bedside of the sick Insarov, Elena sees a white seagull high above the water: “If she flies here,” Elena thought, “that will be a good sign...” The seagull circled in place, folded its wings - and, like one that had been shot, , with a plaintive cry, fell somewhere far beyond the dark ship.”
Dmitry Insarov turns out to be the same inspired hero worthy of Elena. What distinguishes him from the Russian Bersenevs and Shubins? First of all, integrity of character, complete absence of contradictions between word and deed. He is not busy with himself, all his thoughts are focused on one goal - the liberation of his homeland, Bulgaria. Turgenev sensitively grasped in the character of Insarov the typical features of the best people of the Bulgarian Renaissance: the breadth and versatility of mental interests, focused on one point, subordinated to one cause - the liberation of the people from centuries-old slavery. Insarov's strength is nourished and strengthened by a living connection with his native land, which is so lacking in the Russian heroes of the novel - Bersenev, who writes the work “On some features of ancient German law in the matter of judicial punishments,” the talented Shubin, who sculpts bacchantes and dreams of Italy. Both Bersenev and Shubin are also active people, but their activities are too far from the urgent needs of people's life. These are people without a strong root, the absence of which gives their characters either internal lethargy, like Bersenev, or butterfly inconstancy, like Shubin.
At the same time, Insarov’s character is reflected in the tribal limitations typical of Don Quixote. The hero's behavior emphasizes stubbornness and straightforwardness, and some pedantry. This dual characterization receives artistic completion in the key episode with two statuettes of the hero, which Shubin sculpted. In the first, Insarov is presented as a hero, and in the second, as a ram, rising on its hind legs and bending its horns to strike. In his novel, Turgenev does not shy away from reflecting on the tragic fate of people of a quixotic nature.
Next to the social plot, partly growing out of it, partly rising above it, the philosophical plot unfolds in the novel. “On the Eve” opens with a dispute between Shubin and Bersenev about happiness and duty. “...Each of us wants happiness for ourselves... But is this word “happiness” that would unite, ignite us both, force us to shake hands with each other? Isn’t this word selfish, I want to say, divisive?” The words unite people: “motherland, science, justice.” And “love”, but only if it is not “love-pleasure”, but “love-sacrifice”.
It seems to Insarov and Elena that their love connects the personal with the public, that it is inspired by a higher goal. But it turns out that life comes into some conflict with the desires and hopes of the heroes. Throughout the entire novel, Insarov and Elena cannot get rid of the feeling of the unforgivability of their happiness, from the feeling of guilt before someone, from the fear of retribution for their love. Why?
Life poses a fatal question to Elena in love: is the great work to which she devoted herself compatible with the grief of a poor, lonely mother? Elena is embarrassed and finds no objection to her question. After all, her love for Insarov brings misfortune not only to her mother: it turns into involuntary cruelty and towards her father, towards her friends Bersenev and Shubin, it leads Elena to a break with Russia. “After all, this is my home,” she thought, “my family, my homeland...”
Elena unconsciously feels that in her feelings for Insarov, the happiness of closeness with a loved one at times prevails over the love for the work to which the hero wants to devote himself completely. Hence the feeling of guilt before Insarov: “Who knows, maybe I killed him.”
In turn, Insarov asks Elena a similar question: “Tell me, has it ever occurred to you that this disease was sent to us as punishment?” Love and common cause turn out to be not entirely compatible. In delirium, during the period of his first illness, and then in his dying moments, with a stiff tongue, Insarov utters two fatal words for him: “mignonette” and “Rendich”. Mignonette is the subtle smell of perfume left by Elena in the room of the sick Insarov. Rendich is the hero's compatriot, one of the organizers of the impending uprising of the Balkan Slavs against the Turkish enslavers. The delirium reveals a deep split in the once whole Insarov.
Unlike Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov with their optimistic theory of reasonable egoism, which affirmed the unity of the personal and the general, happiness and duty, love and revolution, Turgenev draws attention to the hidden drama of human feelings, to the eternal struggle of centripetal (egoistic) and centrifugal (altruistic) principles in the soul of every person. Man, according to Turgenev, is dramatic not only in his inner being, but also in his relationships with the nature around him. Nature does not take into account the unique value of the human person: with indifferent calm it absorbs both the mere mortal and the hero; everyone is equal before her undiscriminating gaze. This motif of the universal tragedy of life invades the novel with the unexpected death of Insarov, the disappearance of Elena’s traces on this earth - forever, irrevocably. “Death is like a fisherman who caught a fish in his net and left it in the water for a while: the fish is still swimming, but the net is on it, and the fisherman will snatch it when he wants.” From the point of view of “indifferent nature,” each of us is “to blame for the fact that we live.”
However, the thought of the tragedy of human existence does not detract, but, on the contrary, enlarges in the novel the beauty and greatness of the daring, liberating impulses of the human spirit, highlights the poetry of Elena’s love for Insarov, and gives a broad universal, philosophical meaning to the social content of the novel. Elena's dissatisfaction with the current state of life in Russia, her longing for a different, more perfect social order in the philosophical plan of the novel acquires a “continuing” meaning, relevant in all eras and all times. “On the Eve” is a novel about Russia’s impulse towards new social relations, permeated with the impatient expectation of consciously heroic natures that will move forward the cause of the liberation of the peasants. And at the same time, this is a novel about the endless quest of humanity, about its constant striving for social perfection, about the eternal challenge that the human personality poses to “indifferent nature”:
“Oh, how quiet and gentle the night was, what dovelike meekness the azure air breathed, how every suffering, every grief was supposed to fall silent and fall asleep under this clear sky, under these holy, innocent rays! "Oh my God! - thought Elena, - why death, why separation, illness and tears? or why this beauty, this sweet feeling of hope, why the calming consciousness of a lasting refuge, unchanging protection, immortal protection? What does this smiling, blessing sky, this happy, resting earth mean? Is it really all just in us, and outside of us is eternal cold and silence? Are we really alone... alone... and there, everywhere, in all these inaccessible abysses and depths, everything, everything is alien to us? Why then this thirst and joy of prayer? ...Is it really impossible to beg, turn away, save... Oh God! Is it really impossible to believe in a miracle?”
Turgenev’s contemporaries from the camp of revolutionary democracy, for whom the main thing was the social meaning of the novel, could not help but be embarrassed by its ending: Uvar Ivanovich’s vague answer to Shubin’s question whether we, in Russia, will have people like Insarov. What questions could there be about this at the end of 1859, when the cause of reform was rapidly moving forward, when “new people” occupied key positions in the Sovremennik magazine? To answer this question correctly, you need to find out what program of action Turgenev proposed to the “Russian Insarovs.”
The author of “Notes of a Hunter” nurtured the idea of a fraternal union of all anti-serfdom forces and hoped for a harmonious outcome of social conflicts. Insarov says: “Note: the last man, the last beggar in Bulgaria and I - we want the same thing. We all have the same goal. Understand how much confidence and strength this gives!” Turgenev wanted all progressive-minded people, regardless of social status and shades of political convictions, to stretch out their hands to each other.
Something else happened in life. Dobrolyubov's article, which Nekrasov introduced Turgenev to as a proofreader, greatly upset the writer. He literally begged Nekrasov in a short letter: "I beg you, dear Nekrasov, do not print this article: It can’t cause me anything other than trouble, it’s unfair and harsh - I won’t know where to go if it gets published. - Please respect my request. “I’ll come see you.”
During a personal meeting with Nekrasov, in response to the persistent desire of the Sovremennik editor to publish an article, Turgenev said: “Choose: either me or Dobrolyubov!” Nekrasov’s choice finally resolved the protracted conflict. Turgenev left Sovremennik forever.
What did the writer not accept in Dobrolyubov’s article? After all, it was in it that a classical assessment of Turgenev’s talent was given, and the critic was very kind to the novel as a whole. Turgenev's decisive disagreement was caused by the interpretation of Insarov's character. Dobrolyubov rejected Turgenev’s hero and contrasted the tasks facing the “Russian Insarovs” with the program of national unity that the Bulgarian revolutionary proclaimed in the novel. The “Russian Insarovs” will have to fight the yoke of the “internal Turks,” among whom Dobrolyubov included not only open serf-owners-conservatives, but above all the liberal circles of Russian society, including the creator of the novel himself, I. S. Turgenev. Dobrolyubov’s article struck at the holy of holies of Turgenev’s convictions and beliefs, so he broke all relations with the editors of the magazine.
This departure cost the writer dearly. He had a lot in common with Sovremennik: he took part in its organization and collaborated with it for fifteen years. The memory of Belinsky, friendship with Nekrasov... Literary fame, finally... This breakup was also not easy for Nekrasov. But the subsequent course of events made the dream of reconciliation with Turgenev impossible. Soon a negative review of the novel “Rudin” appeared in Sovremennik, the author of which Turgenev mistakenly considered Dobrolyubov to be, although it was written by Chernyshevsky. The novel was denied artistic integrity; it spoke of the author's lack of freedom in relation to the main character, depicted from opposing points of view that were not consistent with each other. It was hinted that Turgenev allegedly deliberately lowered Rudin’s character to please rich aristocrats, in whose eyes “every poor man is a scoundrel.” Humorous attacks on Turgenev began to appear on the pages of Whistle. At the end of September 1860, the writer sent Panaev an official refusal to cooperate:
“Dear Ivan Ivanovich. Although, as far as I remember, you have already stopped announcing your employees in Sovremennik, and although, based on your reviews of me, I must assume that you no longer need me, however, to be sure, I ask you not to include my name in the number your employees, especially since I have nothing ready and that the big thing, which I have just started now and which I will not finish until next May, has already been assigned to the Russian Messenger.
In an advertisement for subscription to Sovremennik, Turgenev soon read that some representatives of the magazine (mainly the fiction department) were no longer among its employees. “Regretting the loss of their cooperation, the editors, however, did not want, in the hope of their future excellent works, to sacrifice the main ideas of the publication, which seem to them fair and honest and the service of which attracts and will attract new, fresh figures and new sympathies to it, between while the figures, although talented, have stopped in the same direction, precisely because they do not want to recognize the new demands of life, deprive themselves of strength and cool the former sympathies for them.”
Turgenev was outraged by this note: it turned out that the editors of Sovremennik themselves, devoted to the radical trend, refused to cooperate with Turgenev and other writers of the liberal camp. The general assessment and verdict was also offensive, denying the writers of Turgenev’s circle any creative prospects. “So you and I are among the Podolinskys, Trilunnys and other respectable retired majors! - Turgenev joked bitterly in a letter to Fet. - What, father, should I do? It's time to give way to the young men. But where are they, where are our heirs?
Critical reviews of the novel “On the Eve” also greatly upset Turgenev. Countess E. E. Lambert directly told Turgenev that he published the novel in vain. To her high society taste, Elena Stakhova seemed to be an immoral girl, devoid of shame, femininity and charm. The critic M.I. Daragan, expressing the opinion of conservative circles of society, called Elena “an empty, vulgar, cold girl who violates the decency of the world, the law of female modesty” and is some kind of “Don Quixote in a skirt.” Dmitry Insarov also seemed to this critic to be a dry and sketchy hero, a completely unsuccessful hero for the author. There was a high-society joke going around St. Petersburg: “This is the “On the Eve”, which will never have its tomorrow.” It turned out that after the signal of general reconciliation accepted by society in the novel “The Noble Nest”, a period of general discord began: “On the Eve” was criticized both left and right, Turgenev’s call for unity, put into the mouth of Insarov, was not heard by Russian society. After the publication of “On the Eve”, Turgenev began to have a desire to “resign from literature.”
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Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev gave an artistic understanding of the problem of the active principle in man in the novel “On the Eve”. The work contains “the idea of the need for consciously active natures” for the movement of society towards progress.
In “On the Eve,” the author accomplished what readers might have long expected: a decisive and active man appeared next to a strong-willed woman. Turgenev had been working towards this image for a long time, having conceived it at the time of the creation of “Rudin”. Then the figure of the main character clearly emerged in the author’s imagination, but there was no main character. To create it, Turgenev needed a real life fact. Chance helped. One of the writer’s Oryol neighbors handed him a notebook with a story in which “in cursory strokes” was outlined what would later become the content of the novel “On the Eve.” This is how the “consciously heroic nature” was found in life. And for the first time in Turgenev’s work, two people of action appeared in one work at once - the Bulgarian Insarov and Elena Stakhova. The novel “On the Eve” expressed the new generation’s desire for progress, the thirst for active participation in life, deeds, not words.
Critics noted that the advantage of Ivan Sergeevich’s novel is “the creation of such a female character that not a single Russian poem, not a single Russian novel has given the reader.” The image of Elena Stakhova is complete, typical, lively, completely Russian. In her, the type of “Turgenev girl” received the most complete embodiment. The main traits of her character are self-sacrifice. Unlike Liza Kalitina, Elena has no contradictions in her soul between moral duty and the natural desire for happiness. They are completely the same. Elena’s nature and consciousness are one whole, so for her at first there is no problem of renouncing personal happiness. Active good is Elena's ideal, associated with her understanding of happiness. “Since childhood, she longed for activity and goodness; the poor, the hungry, the sick occupied her, worried her, tormented her; she saw them in a dream, asked all her friends about them; She gave alms carefully, with involuntary importance, almost with excitement.” However, in the very thirst for self-sacrifice, Elena Stakhova has another important difference from Liza Kalitina. Lisa renounces only the egoistic need for happiness and bears the burden of responsibility for the imperfection of the world. Elena sees happiness in renouncing herself as an individual, from her own freedom and from responsibility: “Whoever has given himself completely... all... has little grief, he is not responsible for anything. It’s not I who wants: it’s what he wants.” This important entry in Elena's diary reveals an essential feature of her nature. The deepening of this trait would be detrimental to the individual. Therefore, here is the limit beyond which Turgenev did not want to continue the development of his favorite literary type.
Insarov, on the other hand, towers over all the characters in the novel (excluding Elena. He is on a par with her). He rises as a hero, whose whole life is illuminated by the thought of heroism. The most attractive feature of Insarov for the author is his love for his homeland - Bulgaria. Insarov is the embodiment of fiery love for the fatherland. His soul is full of one feeling: compassion for his native people, who are in Turkish bondage. “If you only knew how blessed our land is! - says Insarov to Elena. - And meanwhile he is trampled, he is tormented... everything was taken away from us, everything: our churches, our rights, our lands; The filthy Turks are driving us like a herd, they are slaughtering us... Do I love my homeland? - What else can you love on earth? What is the one thing that is unchangeable, what is above all doubts, what is it impossible not to believe after God? And when this homeland needs you..."
The entire work of I. S. Turgenev is imbued with the “greatness and holiness” of the idea of \u200b\u200bliberation of the suffering fatherland. Insarov is a kind of ideal of self-denial. It is characterized to the highest degree by self-restraint, the imposition of “iron chains of duty” on oneself. He subdues all other desires within himself, subordinating his
life in service to Bulgaria. However, his self-denial differs from the humility before the duty of Lavretsky and Lisa Kalitina: it is not of a religious and ethical nature, but of an ideological nature.
In accordance with the principle of objective reflection of reality, Turgenev did not want and could not obscure those qualities (even if not always attractive) that he saw in the hero - not in an abstract image, but in a living person. Any character is too complex to be painted with only one paint - black or white. Insarov is no exception. Sometimes he is too rational in his behavior, even his simplicity is deliberate and complex, and he himself is too dependent on his own desire for independence. The writer is attracted to Insarov by quixoticism. There are no other heroes around him capable of action. “We don’t have anyone yet, there are no people, no matter where you look,” says Shubin. “Everything is either milyuz-ha, rodents, hamlets... from empty to empty pourers and drum sticks! And then there are some others: they have studied themselves to shameful subtlety, they constantly feel the pulse of each of their sensations and report to themselves: this is what I feel, this is what I think. Useful practical activity! No, if there were good people between us, this girl would not have left us, this sensitive soul would not have slipped away like a fish into water.” “Hamletiki”... The word has been said! Isn’t the author’s self-condemnation heard in these words of Shubin?
In “On the Eve”, more clearly than in Turgenev’s other novels, one feels the presence of the author himself, his thoughts and doubts, too clearly reflected in the thoughts of many characters, in their thoughts and interests. Turgenev even expressed himself in quiet and bright envy of the love of the main characters. Is it by chance that, bowing before this love, Bersenev says to himself the very words that appear more than once in the author’s letters. “What kind of desire is there to cling to the edge of someone else’s nest?”
There is one hidden plot in the novel “On the Eve”, which has nothing to do with the socio-political struggles in pre-reform Russia. In the actions, thoughts, and statements of the characters, the author’s thoughts about happiness gradually develop. ““Thirst for love, thirst for happiness, nothing more,” Shubin praised... “Happiness! Happiness! Before life passes... We will win happiness for ourselves!” Bersenev raised his eyes to him. “As if there is nothing higher than happiness?” he said quietly...”
It is not for nothing that these questions are asked at the very beginning of the novel; they require an answer. Then each of the heroes will find their own happiness.
Shubin - in art, Bersenev - in science. Insarov does not understand personal happiness if the homeland is in sorrow. “How can you be content and happy when your fellow countrymen are suffering?” - Insarov asks, and Elena is ready to agree with him. For them, the personal should be based on the happiness of others. Happiness and duty thus coincide. And it is not at all the separating well-being that Bersenev talks about at the beginning of the novel. But later the heroes realize that even their altruistic happiness is sinful. Just before Insarova's death, Elena feels that for earthly happiness - whatever it may be - a person must be punished. For her, this is Insarov's death. The author reveals his understanding of the law of life: “...the happiness of each person is based on the misfortune of another.” But if so, then happiness is truly a “dividing word” - and therefore, it is unacceptable and unattainable for a person. There is only duty, and you must follow it. This is one of the most important thoughts of the novel. But will there ever be selfless quixotes in Russia? The author does not give a direct answer to this question, although he hopes for a positive solution.
There is no answer to the question posed in the very title of the novel - “On the Eve”. On the eve of what? - the appearance of the Russian Insarovs? When will they appear? “When will the real day come?” - Dobrolyubov asks this question in his article of the same name. What is this if not a call for revolution?
The genius of Turgenev lies in the fact that he was able to see the current problems of the time and reflect them in his novel, which has not lost its freshness for us. Russia needs strong, courageous, purposeful individuals at all times.
In the novel “On the Eve” (1860), the vague bright forebodings and hopes that permeated the melancholy narrative of “The Noble Nest” turn into definite decisions. The main question for Turgenev about the relationship between thought and activity, a man of action and a theorist in this novel is resolved in favor of the hero who practically implements the idea.
The very title of the novel “On the Eve” - a “temporary” title, in contrast to the “local” title “Noble Nest” - reflects the fact that the isolation and immobility of patriarchal Russian life is coming to an end.
A Russian noble house with its centuries-old way of life, with hangers-on, neighbors, and card losses finds itself at a crossroads in the world. The Russian girl finds use for her strength and selfless aspirations by participating in the struggle for the independence of the Bulgarian people.
Immediately after the publication of the novel, readers and critics drew attention to the fact that the Bulgarian is represented here as a person whom the Russian younger generation is ready to recognize as a model.
The title of the novel “On the Eve” not only reflects its direct, plot content (Insarov dies on the eve of the war for the independence of his homeland, in which he passionately wants to take part), but also contains an assessment of the state of Russian society on the eve of the reform and an idea about the significance of the people's liberation struggle in one country (Bulgaria) as the eve of pan-European political changes (the novel indirectly touches on the question of the significance of the resistance of the Italian people to Austrian rule).
Dobrolyubov considered the image of Elena to be the center of the novel - the embodiment of young Russia. This heroine, according to the critic, embodies “the irresistible need for a new life, new people, which now covers the entire Russian society, and not even just the so-called “educated”<...>“The desire for active good” is in us, and we have the strength; but fear, lack of self-confidence and, finally, ignorance: what to do? - we are constantly stopped<...>and we keep searching, thirsting, waiting... waiting for at least someone to explain to us what to do.”
Thus, Elena, who, in his opinion, represented the country’s young generation, its fresh forces, is characterized by spontaneity of protest, she is looking for a “teacher” - a trait inherent in Turgenev’s active heroines.
The idea of the novel and its structural expression, so complex and polysemantic in “The Noble Nest,” are extremely clear and unambiguous in “On the Eve.” The heroine, looking for a teacher-mentor worthy of love, in “On the Eve” chooses from four candidates for her hand, from four ideal options, for each of the heroes is the highest expression of his ethical and ideological type.
Shubin and Bersenev represent the artistic-thinking type (the type of people of abstract-theoretical or figurative-artistic creativity), Insarov and Kurnatovsky belong to the “active” type, that is, people whose calling is practical “life-creativity.”
Speaking about the significance in the novel of the choice of one’s path and one’s “hero” that Elena makes, Dobrolyubov considers this search-choice as a certain process, an evolution similar to the development of Russian society over the past decade. Shubin, and then Bersenev, correspond in their principles and characters to the more archaic, distant stages of this process.
At the same time, both of them are not so archaic as to be “incompatible” with Kurnatovsky (a figure of the era of reforms) and Insarov (to whom the emerging revolutionary situation attaches special importance), Bersenev and Shubin are people of the 50s. None of them are pure representatives of the Hamletic type. Thus, Turgenev in “On the Eve” seemed to say goodbye to his favorite type.
Both Bersenev and Shubin are genetically related to “extra people,” but they do not have many of the main features of heroes of this kind. Both of them are not primarily immersed in pure thought; analysis of reality is not their main occupation. They are “saved” from reflection, introspection and endless retreat into theory by professionalization, vocation, keen interest in a certain field of activity and constant work.
Having “gifted” his hero-artist Shubin the name of the great Russian sculptor, Turgenev gave his portrait attractive features reminiscent of the appearance of Karl Bryullov - he is a strong, dexterous blond.
From the very first conversation of the heroes - friends and antipodes (Bersenev's appearance is depicted as the direct opposite of Shubin's appearance: he is thin, black, awkward), a conversation that is, as it were, a prologue to the novel, it turns out that one of them is “clever, a philosopher, the third candidate of the Moscow university”, an aspiring scientist, the other is an artist, “artist”, sculptor.
But the characteristic features of the “artist” are the features of a person of the 50s. and the ideal of the people of the 50s. - are very different from the romantic idea of the artist. Turgenev deliberately makes this clear: at the very beginning of the novel, Bersenev indicates to Shubin what his – “artist” – tastes and inclinations should be, and Shubin, playfully “fighting off” this obligatory and unacceptable position of a romantic artist, defends his love for sensual life and its real beauty.
Shubin’s very approach to his profession reveals his connection with the era. Aware of the limited possibilities of sculpture as an artistic form, he strives to convey in a sculptural portrait not only and not so much external forms, but the spiritual essence, the psychology of the original, not the “lines of the face,” but the look of the eyes.
At the same time, he is characterized by a special, sharpened ability to evaluate people and the ability to elevate them into types. The accuracy of the characteristics that he gives to other characters in the novel turns his expressions into catchphrases. These characteristics, in most cases, are the key to the types depicted in the novel.
If the author of the novel put all the socio-historical verdicts into Shubin’s mouth, up to the verdict on the legality of “Elena’s choice,” he conveyed a number of ethical declarations to Bersenev. Bersenev is the bearer of the high ethical principle of selflessness and service to an idea (“the idea of science”), just as Shubin is the embodiment of the ideal “high” egoism, the egoism of a healthy and integral nature.
Bersenev was given a moral trait that Turgenev assigned a particularly high place on the scale of spiritual virtues: kindness. Attributing this trait to Don Quixote, Turgenev based his assertion of the exceptional ethical significance of the image of Don Quixote for humanity on it. “Everything will pass, everything will disappear, the highest rank, power, all-encompassing genius, everything will crumble to dust<...>But good deeds will not go up in smoke: they are more durable than the most radiant beauty.”
In Bersenev, this kindness comes from the humanistic culture that he deeply, organically assimilated and his inherent “justice”, the objectivity of a historian who is able to rise above personal, egoistic interests and biases and evaluate the significance of the phenomena of reality regardless of his personality.
This is where “modesty”, interpreted by Dobrolyubov as a sign of moral weakness, stems from his understanding of the secondary importance of his interests in the spiritual life of modern society and his “second number” in a strictly defined hierarchy of types of modern figures.
The type of scientist as an ideal turns out to be historically disavowed. This “reduction” is secured both by the plot situation (Elena’s attitude towards Bersenev), and by the direct assessments given to the hero in the text of the novel, and by the self-esteem put into his mouth. Such an attitude towards the professional activity of a scientist could only be born at a moment when the thirst for direct life-building, historical social creativity gripped the best people of the younger generation.
This practicality, this active attitude to life is not shared by all young people of the 60s. were in the nature of revolutionary or even simply selfless service. In “On the Eve”, Bersenev acts as an antipode not so much to Insarov (we have already noted that he is more than anyone else capable of assessing the significance of Insarov’s personality), but rather to the chief secretary of the Senate, the careerist Kurnatovsky.
The characterization of Kurnatovsky, “attributed” by the author to Elena, reveals the idea that Kurnatovsky, like Insarov, belongs to the “active type” and the mutually hostile positions they occupy within this very broad psychological type.
At the same time, this characteristic also reflects how historical tasks, the need for solution of which is clear to the whole society (according to Lenin, during a revolutionary situation it becomes impossible “for the ruling classes to maintain their dominance unchanged” and at the same time there is a “significant increase in<...>mass activism”, who do not want to live in the old way), force people of very different political orientations to put on the mask of a progressive person and cultivate in themselves the traits that society attributes to such people.
Kurnatovsky’s “faith” is faith in the state as applied to the real Russian life of the era, faith in the estate-bureaucratic, monarchical state. Realizing that reforms were inevitable, figures like Kurnatovsky associated all possible changes in the life of the country with the functioning of a strong state, and considered themselves bearers of the idea of the state and executors of its historical mission, hence self-confidence and self-belief, according to Elena.
At the center of the novel is the Bulgarian patriot-democrat and revolutionary in spirit - Insarov. He seeks to overthrow the despotic rule in his native country, slavery, established for centuries, and the system of trampling on national feeling, protected by a bloody, terrorist regime.
The spiritual uplift that he experiences and communicates to Elena is associated with faith in the cause he serves, with a sense of his unity with all the suffering people of Bulgaria. Love in the novel “On the Eve” is exactly as Turgenev portrays it in the above-quoted words about love as a revolution (“Spring Waters”). Inspired heroes joyfully fly into the light of struggle, ready for sacrifice, death and victory.
In “On the Eve,” for the first time, love appeared as unity in beliefs and participation in a common cause. Here a situation was poeticized that was characteristic of a large period in the subsequent life of Russian society and was of great importance as an expression of a new ethical ideal.
Before connecting his life with her life, Insarov subjects Elena to a kind of “exam,” which anticipates the symbolic “interrogation” to which the mysterious voice of fate subjects the brave revolutionary girl in Turgenev’s prose poem “The Threshold.”
At the same time, the hero of “On the Eve” introduces his beloved girl into his plans, his interests and enters into a kind of agreement with her, which presupposes on her part a conscious assessment of their possible future - a feature of relationships characteristic of the democrats of the sixties.
Elena's love and her noble determination destroy Insarov's ascetic isolation and make him happy. Dobrolyubov especially appreciated the pages of the novel, which depicted the bright and happy love of young people.
Turgenev put into Shubin’s mouth a lyrical apology for the ideal of heroic youth: “Yes, a young, glorious, brave deed. Death, life, struggle, fall, triumph, love, freedom, homeland... Good, good. God bless everyone! This is not like sitting up to your neck in a swamp and trying to pretend that you don’t care, when you really really don’t care. And there - the strings are stretched, ring for the whole world or break!
History of Russian literature: in 4 volumes / Edited by N.I. Prutskov and others - L., 1980-1983.
The novel appears at the same time as Oblomov. But there is a big difference between them. Turgenev builds on the traditions of Goncharov’s work, trying to show that Russia is not in such a dire situation. The quest of Russian women (Goncharov’s is vague), the conscious desire not to limit oneself to household chores, the desire to be useful to society is a trend of new times.
“Hamlet and Don Quixote” - article. In the history of mankind, in different historical periods, 2 social types are realized: Hamlets (deeply feel the imperfections of life, influence other people) who, for all their intelligence, are little capable of action, this was enlightened; and Don Quixotes, for whom it doesn’t matter what the world around them is like, they want to effectively serve their dream.
The era of Hamlets has passed, Russia is waiting for fighters. Image of Nasyrov. The action dates back to the period before the Crimean War.
Turgenev's mother had an estate in the Oryol province, Turgenev went there to rest. A landowner lived nearby who was in love with a girl, but Katronov came to him for a while (hiding). The bride falls in love with Katranov, left the house and left with him. The landowner left his diaries to Turgenev; it later turned out that he had died.
The role of the first scene of the novel. Shubin and Persenin are two friends; a friendly dispute arises, which concerns three issues:
1) What is happiness? The concept of shared love. This selfish feeling, which closes lovers in the circle of their own experiences, makes them indifferent to the world around them. Personal happiness is the highest manifestation of selfishness. Is there such happiness that can be shared with everyone? So that it connects people?
2) Potentials of the human personality. Is the heredity factor important, or does much depend on his aspirations? Elena is an example, she has a lot of her father in her: determination, energy; from the mother - the ability to empathize and feel subtly. But she doesn't look like anyone else.
3) The influence of nature on human life.
Shubin? Nature is the standard of harmony and reminds of happiness. About the secrets of the universe, man is subject to the inexplicable laws of the universe.
These three problems prepare the appearance of Insarov (Rudin), he does not amaze with his intellect or special talent, but he achieves a lot of efficiency, just as Bazarov could call himself broken. The desire to serve the Motherland elevates him above those around him. It is no coincidence that Elena is interested in him. A story about Elena's childhood, her diary. In childhood, compassion for a living being arises. A serious stage in her development was her friendship with a peasant girl - an orphan. She understood all the injustice towards the peasants. But she could do little. She turns her attention to Persenin, the scientist. She is interested in science as a search for answers to emerging questions. But communication with him is not enough for her. He is interested in the past, and she is interested in topical issues. Persenev is not a transformer. With the appearance of Insarov, Elena's attention is drawn to him.
Is Insarov given in the perception of other persons? Persenev understands that Insarov is Elena's No. 1 in relation to him. There is no struggle, no rivalry. Persenev thinks. That he can help her get closer to Insarov.
Persenev's friend Shubin treats Insarov a little differently. The image of Shubin is unusual. Reception of the contradiction between the apparent and the real. Everyone on the estate considers him a flighty young man; no one takes his grievances seriously. He was left without parents early on; it was impossible to make his way in life without patronage. Elena's mother took him in; she is an unhappy woman, looking for an outlet in life, wanting to be amused. Shubin learned the position of a man who should amuse her. He cannot refuse patronage, as this will help make his dream come true. He is sculptural and talented. Anna Vasilievna supplies him with money and scolds him for his reluctance to study at the Academy. Shubin is a man of new times, he wants to portray an ordinary person, he learns from nature itself, sculpts peasants and peasant women. He is going to Ukraine. Shubin is very sensitive, he is the first to notice Elena’s change in mood. Shubin assessed Insarov as an artist in his own way.
Love does not exist for him, there is no subtle lyricism.
Insarov is from a noble family, from Bulgaria. There, the basis of their unity is freedom from Turkish rule. Hence 2 sculptural portraits of Shubin:
Bust of Insarov romanticized
Satires. Insarov in the form of a lamb, ready for battle. Limited intellect, lack of spiritual poetry. But Insarov is closer to the people.
The scene that drew Elena's special attention to Insarov and showed how he attracted the attention of the Russian nobles. The scene in Tsaritsyno is the main one in the novel. Even the ever-tearful Anna Vasilyevna was left with a joyful impression of the village. They decided to sing a Russian folk song, but no one knew a single song until the end. The rowers were laughing. German Zoe saves the day by singing a foreign romance, which delights the drunken Germans. On the shore, the Germans begin to pester. Foreigners feel at home in Russia. Shubin and Persenev persuade them, but Insarov decides to confront them. Elena's attention to Insarov, Shubin is a domestic joker for her, and he is truly in love with her, but understands that he cannot give her anything, neither materially nor spiritually. He turns out to be her friend, pacifies the enraged head of the family when Elena secretly marries Insarov.
The theme of love is intertwined with the theme of social struggle in Bulgaria. In Elena's fate, love and revolution merged together. Talking about her fate, the author also raises the question of happiness. A person, going to his own happiness, brings misfortune to others. But this is punishable. When Elena and Insarov are in Italy to smuggle into Bulgaria, even Insarov changes. Along with love, an interest in art awakens in him, but details appear in the novel that seem to precede a dramatic denouement. It is said about Venice: Trees are planted on the coast, but do they die? "consumptive trees". In Italy, Insarov's illness awakens, but he does not attach any importance to it. Theme of secret prediction. Rain and thunderstorm that caught Elena while searching for Insarov. Meeting with a beggar woman. The only thing is a cambric lace handkerchief, which Elena gives her, but the beggar woman is richer than her spiritually. She was given the gift of foresight. Together with the handkerchief, she takes away Elena's tears. And he enters this chapel of the Insars, where their explanations and oaths, oaths before God take place. This scene made Elena think about what a higher will is.
When they are in Italy. Scene from the opera La Traviata by Verdi. A fictional plot, but the ending is unusual. A similar motive: his parents are against it, but the heroine is terminally ill. At the beginning of the novel, the improbability made Insarov and Elena laugh; the actress plays poorly. In the finale, her performance is sincere and captivating; it’s as if they hear the voice of fate, looking for each other’s hands in the darkness. Insarov's illness is serious. 2 scenes: Elena’s fortune-telling and dream. She does not want to believe in the tragic ending of fate; she sees a flying seagull. If she flies to the window, Insarov will recover, if she flies to the sea, she will die. The seagull flew to the sea. She drives away bad thoughts, but thinks that Insarov’s illness is a punishment. But for what? Elena did not know that everyone’s happiness was based on the misfortune of the other, she remembered only her abandoned mother, but did not remember Bersenev, giving him false hope, Shubin, whom she offended, considered unworthy of her attention.
Dream: Insarov is very far away, imprisoned in a small room, Elena is driving towards him along a snowy road, next to her is the girl Katya. A joyful time in Tsaritsyno, but the pond turns into an ocean, she is alone among strangers in a boat that is sinking, and Insarov calls her. He actually called her.
Insarov dies without waiting for his friends, but Elena does not want to return to her homeland. At this point there was no information about Elena. The worried father went to Italy, but did not find out anything. The Bulgarians captured a woman in black, but it was unknown that she was Elena.
The symbolism of sleep in the popular interpretation speaks of something else: the closet is a coffin, the snow is symbolic. Shroud. Accompanying the deceased Katya takes her to the other world. A picture of impending doom? The storm capsizes the boat. A storm broke out off the coast of Italy. After her, a coffin with an unknown woman was found on the shore, then Elena died.
The very end of the novel is Shubin’s reflections. He's in Italy. I went after Elena’s father to look for her traces. He excelled in art and exhibited his work, which was almost bought by a rich man. Shubin could not grasp the essence of Elena, her face was new every time. Elena is undergoing rapid internal development. The look and appearance changes. And in Italy I was able to make her portrait from memory. The Bacchante in Russian literature is a symbol of obsession. Great obsession with ideas.
"Nove"
A new movement, a social movement with its own tasks. In the epigraph: “newly you need to plow deeply... with a plow, and not with a superficially sliding plow.” The people are unplowed virgin soil.
Nezhdanov's prototype was a person well known to Turgenev, whom he met abroad - Toporov.
When Turgenev arrived in St. Petersburg, he fell ill. One day a young man came to him and unceremoniously asked about his health. He carried out his mission diligently. Turgenev was amazed, the agent suspected. The young man recalled that they had met. Did he tell his story? He is the illegitimate son of a prince, his mother died, and his stepfather gave him to a foster family, then assigned him to the Cossacks - an errand servant at court. Became an adjutant. A brilliant prospect, but the heir died. Toporov had to be assigned, his position was court doctor, but he only treated servants. He met the populists and left the court world. Changed his last name and went into hiding. Did he strike Turgenev? He abandoned the royal palace for the sake of an idea and did not regret it.
The main character is Nezhdanov. The range of representations of the raznochinsky environment, which discussed modern events, phrases about the misfortune of comrades, arrests, betrayed by friends.
The famous and talented writer Ivan Sergeevich Turgenev is a classic of Russian literature. He is known not only as a writer, but also as a poet, publicist, translator, and playwright. His realistic works are still a great asset of Russian literature. Ivan Sergeevich made a huge contribution to ensuring that Russian literature could develop in the nineteenth century.It is known that this wonderful writer succeeded not only in his writing, but also became a corresponding member of the famous and prestigious Academy of Sciences, where he received a degree in Russian language and literature. In addition, he was awarded an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford, as well as an honorary fellow of the Metropolitan University. But his main achievements are his works, among which six novels stand out. They brought him fame and popularity. One of them is "On the Eve", which was published in 1860.
The history of the creation of Turgenev's novel
Ivan Turgenev, according to the memoirs of his contemporaries, already in the second half of the 1850s began to think about creating in one of his works a completely new hero, who had not yet appeared in Russian literature before him. This decision did not come to the writer easily, but because the author of wonderful landscape works was influenced by liberal democrats.
According to Ivan Turgenev's plan, his hero was supposed to reflect the views of the author himself, but be more moderate. This understanding of creating a new hero came to the writer much earlier, when he was just starting work on his first novel. And even the female images in his work have become new for modern literature. For example, Elena, about whom the author himself said:
“I could give in to a strong desire for freedom.”
What is known for sure about the history of the creation of this novel is that the manuscript of his autobiography was left to the writer himself by a neighbor who at that time lived in the neighboring Mtsensk district. This event happened to the author around 1855. And that landowner-neighbor turned out to be a certain Vasily Karataev. This officer, serving in the noble militia, decided not only to leave his manuscript to the writer, but also gave his consent to Ivan Sergeevich to dispose of it as he pleased.
Of course, Ivan Turgenev read it, and he was interested in the love story that was told in this handwritten notebook. This is how the plot of his novel was born: a young man loves a beautiful and charming girl who chooses another - a Bulgarian. He is currently in Moscow, studying at the university.
The main characters of the novel:
✔ Anna Vasilievna Stakhova.
✔ Nikolai Artemyevich Stakhov.
✔ Dmitry Insarov.
✔ Andrey Bersenev.
✔ Pavel Shubin.
As you know, the prototype of this Bulgarian was a certain Nikolai Katranov, who lived in the capital, and then, together with his Russian wife, tries to return to his homeland, since the Russian-Turkish war began. But soon he dies of consumption, never reaching his hometown.
It is known that the neighbor who gave his manuscript to the writer never returned from the war, as he died of typhus. Ivan Turgenev tried to publish this manuscript, but, from the point of view of literature, it was too weak, so many years later he re-read this notebook again and realized that he had found a new hero, whom he was thinking about at that time.
In 1858, he took up the artistic reworking of the plot, which was suggested to him by a neighbor. But, as the writer himself explained, only one scene remained the same, everything else was reworked and changed. Ivan Turgenev also had an assistant - the famous writer, Turgenev's friend and traveler E. Kovalevsky. The author of the novel needed him, as he was well versed in all the details of the liberation movement that was taking place in Bulgaria.
It is known that the writer wrote his novel not only on the family estate, but also abroad, for example, in London and other cities. And as soon as he returned to Moscow, he himself delivered the manuscript to the publication of the then famous magazine “Russian Messenger”.
The plot of the new novel
The plot of Turgenev's novel begins with an argument. Scientist Andrei Bersenev and sculptor Pavel Shubin take part in it. The topic of their dispute is the nature and place of man in the world around him. Gradually, the author introduces the reader to the entire family of the sculptor. For example, with a distant relative, Aunt Anna Vasilyevna, who does not love her husband at all, just like he does not love her. Anna Vasilievna's husband met a German widow by chance and therefore spends most of his time with her. And this is easy to explain: after all, he once married Anna Vasilievna for money, and the only thing that unites them is their adult daughter Elena.
Everyone knows that Nikolai Artemyevich’s new acquaintance robs her quite well. And the sculptor has been living in this family for five years, since this is the only place where he can do art, but most of the time he is lazy. He takes care of the companion of the owner's daughter, Zoya, but he is still in love with Elena. But who is she, Elena? This is a young girl, twenty years old, dreamy and kind. She helps those who need help: hungry, sick people and animals. But at the same time she herself is very lonely. She lives alone and does not have a boyfriend yet. She is not at all interested in Shubin, and she is only interested in his friend for conversation.
One day Bersenev introduces Elena to his acquaintance, Dmitry Insarov, who lives in Russia, but dreams of liberating his homeland. The Bulgarian interested Elena, but not at the first meeting. He begins to like him when he protects her from a drunkard who accosted the girl right on the street. And when the girl falls deeply in love, she finds out that Dmitry is leaving. Andrei tells the girl that he is afraid that his personal ardent feelings for Elena will deprive him of the will to fight for his country. Then the girl herself goes to the young man, confesses her feelings and is now ready to help him in everything and follow him everywhere.
Elena and Dmitry communicate modestly for some time, but Insarova, receiving alarming and sad letters from her relatives and friends, begins to prepare to leave. And then Elena comes to his house to talk seriously about their future together. After a heated explanation, it was decided to get married. Her parents were shocked by her announcement of her marriage. For them, the news that she was going to foreign lands with her husband was a big blow.
In Venice they have to linger a little, as they are waiting for a ship going to Serbia, and only then they can get to Bulgaria. But then Dmitry falls ill: he has a fever and fever. One day Elena has a terrible and terrible dream, and when she wakes up, she sees that her husband has died. Therefore, only his body is delivered to his homeland. After this, there was another letter to her parents, where Elena wrote that she was going to Bulgaria and wanted to consider this country her new homeland. After that, she disappears, and only rumors reach her that she is performing the role of a sister of mercy.
Motives of Turgenev's plot
All motives, as well as Turgenev’s ideas in the novel, were analyzed by critic Nikolai Dobrolyubov, who approached the plot from a progressive position. The critic notes the author's special literary sensitivity. This is perfectly manifested in the way Ivan Sergeevich portrays the main character. The critic saw in Elena Stakhova the image of Russia, which is still young and beautiful.
Elena in Turgenev’s view is addressed to the people, from them she takes a dream, seeks the truth. She is also willing to sacrifice herself for someone. Elena is a wonderful heroine, men like her. The army of her fans is large: they are an artist, an official, a scientist and even a revolutionary. The girl chooses the revolutionary Insarov, also trying to accomplish a civic feat. Her chosen one has a high goal to which he subordinates his entire life. He dreams of happiness for his homeland.
There is another theme in Turgenev’s work - this is the conflict of personal interests and sincerity. For example, Barsenev and Shubin argue about what happiness is, what love is, and what can be higher. The more the reader observes the main characters, the more obvious it becomes that they must sacrifice their love. The author seems to be trying to emphasize that any life on Earth ends tragically. And according to the plot of the novel, it is known that Insarov unexpectedly dies of illness. And Elena disappears into the crowd of people and no one knows anything about her anymore.
Criticism and reviews of Ivan Turgenev’s novel “On the Eve”
The writer did not accept the position of critic Nikolai Dobrolyubov on his novel, his interpretation of the general plot and his view of the main characters. At the time when the critical article was about to be published, Turgenev turned to Nekrasov with a request to stop the review. It's not that the author was afraid of publication. Ivan Sergeevich was upset by the very fact that the novel was misunderstood. Therefore, as soon as Nekrasov’s magazine Sovremennik was published, the writer decided to break with him forever, since his requests were not heeded. But the criticism of the novel “On the Eve” did not stop there. Soon, another article appeared on the pages of the same Nekrasov magazine, which contained a negative review of the novel, but already written by Chernyshevsky. There was an equally negative reaction to the content of the novel and its characters from conservative writers and nobles.
What contemporaries wrote about the published novel. Most of all they scolded the heroine, believing that she had no feminine qualities at all, that she was immoral and empty. The main character also got it, most often he was called dry and sketchy.
This greatly upset the author. But time put everything in its place. The predictions made by the first readers that “On the Eve” will never have a tomorrow did not come true. The novel, written more than 150 years ago, is one of the brightest creations of Russian classics and is known to any contemporary as a bright and profound work.