Hellenophile against the Greek city-states
King Croesus (560 - 546 BC) belonged to the Mermnad dynasty - a family that ruled Lydia from the 8th century BC. e. The Lydians spoke their own language, which belonged to the Indo-European family. Although scholars continue to debate the origins of this people, what is certain is that they were heavily influenced by the Hittites.
Croesus was not Greek, but was considered a Hellenophile
The core of the Lydian state was located in the west of Asia Minor. Croesus established control over a large part of the peninsula by conquering the ancient Greek tribes that settled in Asia Minor after the fall of the Hittite kingdom: the Ionians, Dorians and Aeolians. At the same time he entered into an alliance with the Lacedaemonians.
Currency reform
Croesus's predecessor, Gyges, began organizing the economy of Lydia. He began to put the state seal on the bullion that was used as money. The Lydians had no shortage of precious metal - the Pactolus River flowed through their country. It was gold-bearing. Pactolus brought electrum, a mineral that was an alloy of silver and gold.
Gold coin of Croesus
Croesus continued the work of Gyges and carried out a new reform. His gold coins spread not only to Lydia, but also to Greece. Herodotus reports that the king, in gratitude, donated his money to the inhabitants of Delphi. The oracle of this city predicted victory over Persia in the coming war. The Greeks liked the coins. Trade also contributed to their spread.
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
Croesus captured Ephesus, one of the largest Greek city-states in Asia Minor. The inhabitants of the city worshiped the cult of Artemis. The Lydian king respected the faith of the Ephesians and allocated money for the construction of a new large temple to the goddess of fertility and hunting. It was completed only in the first half of the 5th century BC. e. This temple is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The vain Herostratus set it on fire, wanting to immortalize his name.
Model of the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus in Turkey
Archaeologists were able to discover two inscriptions of Croesus on the columns remaining from the ruins of the temple. Ephesus itself reached economic prosperity under Croesus. More than 200 thousand people lived here - a gigantic figure for the ancient world. Despite this, Sardis remained the capital of Lydia (the lion, the heraldic symbol of the city, was minted on coins).
Rescue at the stake
Croesus's conquests stopped after his possessions came into contact with Persian territory. The Achaemenid power was also on the rise. King Cyrus II annexed Media and had no intention of stopping his onslaught to the west.
A coalition of Lydia, Sparta, Egypt and Babylon fought against Persia
Since a clash with the Persians was inevitable, Croesus entered into an alliance with Sparta, Egypt and Babylon. The idea of turning to the Greeks for help was suggested to the king by oracles. However, hopes that the coalition would be able to cope with Cyrus were not justified. After two defeats on the battlefield, the Lydians had to defend their own capital. Sardis was besieged for 14 days. The Persians captured the city by using cunning and finding a secret path to the acropolis.
Croesus at the stake
In most ancient Greek sources, the version was established that Croesus was sentenced to be burned at the stake, but was pardoned by the decision of Cyrus. According to Herodotus, the king, preparing for death, remembered a conversation with the Greek sage Solon and his thought that no one during life can be considered happy. The Athenian despised the wealth of Croesus. Finding himself at the stake, the Lydian was ready to exchange all his treasures for the opportunity to talk with Solon. The translators explained to Cyrus the words of the defeated enemy. The impressed Persian king ordered the fire to be extinguished, but it had already caught fire and it was no longer possible to extinguish it. Croesus was saved by Apollo, who rained down rain on the earth.
According to another version, the Lydian king actually died after the fall of his capital. Another legend says that Apollo, who helped Croesus, took him to the country of the Hyperboreans. But whatever the fate of the king, Lydia itself became part of Persia. Since then, the Mermnads ruled the country as satraps, dependent on the Achaemenid power. And the Persians adopted the technology of the Lydians - King Darius began minting his own gold coin, the darik.
Croesus was the king of the strong state of Lydia, located in the western part of Asia Minor. His very name became a household name in ancient times (“rich as Croesus”). The Greeks, both Asia Minor, who were subjects of Croesus, and the Balkans, had many legends about Croesus on the theme of the vicissitudes of human fate.
Never since Croesus took the throne in Sardis had such a revival been remembered there. Every now and then, messengers ran out of the palace gates and, mounting horses, rushed to one or another city gate. A mass of people flocked to the palace. By their attire one could recognize the Chaldeans, Hellenes, and Cappadocians.
The cause of the commotion was the news that a certain man, whose name in Lydian means “shepherd,” had overthrown the king of the Medes, Astyages, and was threatening the safety of the kingdom. The messengers of Croesus were sent to all the kings - allies of Lydia with a proposal to join forces to overthrow this Cyrus and return power to Astyages. Some moved to Babylonia, where Nabonidus ruled, others to the king of Egypt Amasis, others to distant Italy, to the Etruscan kings, who considered themselves descendants of the Lydians. Another embassy with rich gifts was sent to Delphi to the Pythia with the question whether he, Croesus, needed to go to war against the Persians. The oracle's answer was favorable: “If you, king, cross Halys, the great kingdom will fall.”
Having received this prediction, Croesus, without waiting for the allied forces to approach, crossed with the army of Halys and set up a camp near Pteria, in Cappadocia. Cyrus, having gathered his army, moved to Cappadocia, joining along the way detachments of the peoples through whose lands he passed. And for the first time on the land of Pteria, the Lydians and Persians faced off. The battle was brutal and bloody, but neither side gained the upper hand. Having crossed Halys in the opposite direction, Croesus returned to Sardis, where he learned that in his absence the banks of the Herma River, on which the capital stood, were filled with snakes that had come from nowhere. The horses of the royal herds attacked the snakes and devoured them, and this was considered a miracle. An embassy was sent to Telmesse to explain it. The oracle of Telmess gave the miracle the following interpretation: snakes are creatures of their native land, and horses are aliens. Therefore, the king should expect the invasion of a foreign horse breeding people who will devour his kingdom.
And so it happened. Cyrus moved to Sardis immediately, without waiting for help to approach Croesus. The opponents met on a plain devoid of vegetation near Sardis. The Lydians deployed a mounted army armed with spears made of magnesian iron. The horses, having eaten snakes, neighed all the time and were eager to fight. Hearing these sounds, Cyrus's horses tucked their tails in fear. And Cyrus called Harpagus to him to ask him what to do. Harpagus advised placing pack cattle, mules and camels in front, and placing infantrymen on them in the garb of horsemen, but with akinaki. Harpagus knew that horses were afraid of camels, and in close combat the Persians were stronger than the pampered Lydians. And so it happened. Croesus's cavalry attack ended in failure. The horses, frightened by the camels, threw off the Lydian horsemen. In close combat, the Persians defeated the warriors of Croesus and moved towards Sardis.
Three times in a fortnight, the Persians attacked a well-fortified city and rolled back with heavy losses. Then Cyrus announced that he would give a royal reward to the first person to climb the city wall. The lucky one was Giread from the robber tribe of the Mards. He drew attention to the place of the acropolis, where it faced the lowland and ended with a steep cliff. Due to its inaccessibility, this place was not guarded. Only one day a warrior appeared there and began to look for something below. His helmet fell off his head. Having gone down, the Lydian picked him up. Giread ascended the wall the same way, followed by other warriors. So Sardis was taken from the side of the acropolis, and not from the lower city, where they were expected.
Croesus fled from the palace along with his deaf-mute son. The Persian who was pursuing him did not know the king by sight. Looking around, the boy saw that the warrior was raising a spear to throw, and in fear for the first time in his life he spoke: “Man! Don't kill Croesus!
The king was taken to Cyrus in chains. Cyrus ordered the shackles to be removed from him and sat him down next to him. Croesus was silent for a long time, and then turned to Cyrus with the following question: “What is some horde doing behind the door with such fury?” Cyrus answered: “They are plundering the city and stealing your treasures.” “I no longer have a city or treasures,” said Croesus. “They are the ones who are stealing your property.” Cyrus called the messengers, intending to send them to stop the robbery. Croesus held him back. “If you want to listen to my advice, do this: place a guard at the gate, and let it take a tenth from those leaving to dedicate to your god Ahuramazda. Then they will not hate you, but will understand the justice of your actions and will even give up the spoils voluntarily.”
Having accepted this advice, Cyrus understood the wisdom of Croesus and himself asked him: “Croesus! Ask me for mercy, whatever pleases you.” “Lord,” answered Croesus, “if you are so kind, then order these chains to be sent to Delphi, to the Hellenic god, whom I honored above others, but he deceived me.” “What was his deception?” - Cyrus asked in surprise. “That he inspired me to start a war against you.”
Cyrus complied with Croesus' request. The Lydians, who had previously been sent with the most precious royal gifts, appeared with iron shackles and, handing them to the high priest, reminded of this prophecy. The priest did not accept the shackles, but said: “Even God cannot escape what is predetermined by fate. The king complains that the oracle given to him was unfair. After all, he was told that by crossing Galis, he would destroy the great kingdom. And he destroyed it. This kingdom was Lydia."
Having waited for this answer, Cyrus left Sardis with Croesus. On the way to Pasargadae he was overtaken by the news of the uprising of the Lydians led by Pactius. Cyrus became furious and set out to destroy Sardis and turn all the Lydians into his slaves. Croesus managed to dissuade him from this. “It’s people, not houses, who have rebelled against you, king,” he said, “you punish them, and only the instigators of the rebellion, and don’t touch the rest.” “But they will rise again!” - the Persian objected. “There is a sure remedy against this,” continued the Lydian. “Open markets at all crossroads in Sardis. And let the townspeople sell onions, carrots, apples and other food items, as well as nails, knives, clothes and other small items. Order them also to wear fluffy tunics with long sleeves and high shoes that restrict movement. After this, believe me, the Lydians will soon turn into women, and you will not have to fear a new uprising.” Cyrus followed the advice of Croesus, and all the time while he was conquering other nations, the Lydians were calm.
CROESUS(Kroisos) (c. 595 - after 529 BC), last ruler of the Ancient Lydian kingdom. Son of King Alyattes of Lydia (c. 610–560 BC) of the Mermnad dynasty; mother is from Caria. In the 560s BC. was the Lydian governor in Mysia (a region in northwestern Asia Minor). Shortly before his death, his father appointed him as his heir. Took the throne ca. 560 BC at the age of thirty-five. Having come to power, he ordered the murder of another contender for the crown - his half-brother Pantaleon.
In the early 550s BC. went on a campaign against the Greek city-states on the western coast of Asia Minor and forced them to pay him tribute. He also planned to subjugate the islands inhabited by the Greeks in the eastern part of the Aegean Sea (Samos, Chios, Lesbos) and began building a fleet, but then abandoned his plans; according to ancient tradition, he made this decision under the influence of the Greek sage Biant from Priene. He conquered all of Asia Minor up to the river. Galis (modern Kyzyl-Irmak), except for Lycia and Cilicia. He created a vast power, which, in addition to Lydia itself, included Ionia, Aeolis, Doris of Asia Minor, Phrygia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Caria and Pamphylia; these areas appear to have retained considerable internal autonomy.
He was famous for his exorbitant wealth; This is where the saying “rich as Croesus” comes from. He considered himself the happiest person on earth; the legend tells of a visit to him by the Athenian sage and politician Solon, who refused to call the king happy, because a person’s happiness can only be judged after his death (this legend is hardly based on real facts).
He maintained friendly relations with the Kingdom of Media, ruled by his brother-in-law Astyages, and the states of Balkan Greece ( cm. ANCIENT GREECE). Patronized the Delphic oracle of the god Apollo ( cm. DELPHI) and the Theban oracle of the hero Amphiaraus; sent them rich gifts.
After the absorption of Media by the Persians ca. 550 BC organized a coalition with Sparta, Babylon and Egypt against the Persian king Cyrus II ( cm. CYRUS the Great). Having received, as Herodotus reports ( cm. HERODOTUS), a favorable prediction from the Delphic Oracle (“Halis crosses the river, Croesus will destroy the vast kingdom”), invaded in the fall of 546 BC. dependent on the Persians, Cappadocia, devastated it and captured the Cappadocian cities. He gave Cyrus II a battle at Pteria, which did not bring victory to either side, after which he returned to Lydia and disbanded the mercenary army for the winter. However, unexpectedly for him, Cyrus II moved deep into the Lydian state and approached its capital - Sardam. Croesus managed to gather only a small cavalry army, which was defeated by the Persians in the battle of Sardis. After a 14-day siege, the Lydian capital was taken, Croesus was captured and sentenced to be burned. According to legend, at the stake he pronounced the name of Solon three times; Having heard this, Cyrus II demanded clarification and, having learned from the condemned man about his meeting with the Athenian sage, pardoned him and even made him his closest advisor.
In 545 BC, after the uprising of Pactius in Lydia, he dissuaded Cyrus II from his intention to destroy Sardis and sell all the Lydians into slavery. In 529 BC. During the campaign of Cyrus II against the Massagetae, he convinced the Persian king to fight on the land of the nomads, and not on his own territory. After the death of Cyrus II, he retained a high position at the court of his son and heir Cambyses (529–522 BC). The further fate of Croesus is unknown.
Ivan Krivushin
King Croesus of Lydia was the last of the Mermnad dynasty and ruled in the 6th century BC. He is credited with the primacy in minting coins with an established standard of 98% gold and silver content.
This gave rise in the ancient world to say that Croesus had plenty of these metals. According to many, this testified to his fabulous wealth. Croesus was also the first to issue a royal seal - with the head of a lion and a bull on the front side. Today we will tell you about his wealth and which king defeated Croesus, the ruler of Lydia.
Untold riches
After Croesus's father, Alyattes II, died, he reigned on the throne, defeating his half-brother in a short struggle.
During his reign, the territory expanded greatly. Croesus subjugated the cities of Asia Minor in Greece, among which were Miletus and Ephesus. He also captured almost the entire vast territory located in Asia Minor, right up to the Galis River. This contributed to a significant increase in the taxes he collected.
In addition to the fact that King Croesus of Lydia was a successful warrior and politician, he was an educated man. Being a connoisseur of Hellenic culture, he wanted to introduce his fellow tribesmen to it. Croesus generously donated gifts to Greek sanctuaries, including the temples of Ephesus and Delphi. So, the second of them was presented with a statue of a lion, consisting of pure gold. This was also the reason why King Croesus of Lydia was considered the richest ruler in the ancient world.
Checking predictors
Croesus waged wars with the king of Persia, who founded the Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus II. Having conquered Media, Cyrus also set his sights on the countries lying to the west of it.
Before starting hostilities, Croesus, seeing the rapid rise of Persia and the associated danger, thought that he should weaken his new powerful neighbor. As a prudent Lydia, Croesus first decided to find out from the oracles whether he should attack Cyrus.
Beforehand, he gave them an insight test. He sent envoys to the seven most famous oracles of Greece and Egypt, so that on the hundredth day after they left Lydia, they asked the soothsayers what their king was doing at that moment. Having done this, the ambassadors recorded the answers and hurried back to the capital, the city of Sardis.
There were only two correct answers, they came from Amphiaraus and Delphi. These oracles "saw" that Croesus cut into pieces a lamb and a turtle, and boiled them in a covered copper cauldron.
After the verification, Croesus sent ambassadors to Amphiarai and Delphi, having previously “appeased” the god Apollo by sending rich gifts to Delphi. King Croesus of Lydia asked whether there was any point in attacking the Persians. The answer from both oracles was positive: “The campaign will be victorious, Croesus will crush the great empire.”
And also the oracles advised to enter into an alliance with the most powerful of the Greek policies, without saying which one. After thinking, of the two most powerful Greek city-states, Croesus chose Sparta and entered into an alliance with it. He also agreed on support in the fight against Cyrus II with Babylon and Egypt.
After the events described, Croesus attacked Cappadocia, which was previously part of Media, and at that time - Persia. Having crossed the Galis River, which was the border river, he broke into the city of Pteria and captured it. Here he set up a camp, organizing a base with the aim of attacking the cities and villages of Cappadocia. At this time, Cyrus gathered an army and headed to Pteria.
Conquest of the Lydian Kingdom
The first battle between the Lydians and Persians took place at the walls of Pteria. It lasted all day, but ended in nothing. The Lydian army was inferior in number to the Persian, so Croesus decided to retreat to Sardis in preparation for a new breakthrough.
At the same time, he sent messengers to his allies - Sparta, Babylon and Egypt - asking for help. But he suggested that they approach Sardis not in the near future, but only after five months.
This was due to the fact that, according to Croesus, Cyrus would not dare to go on the offensive immediately after the recent, timid and inconclusive battle. He even disbanded the mercenary army. But Cyrus unexpectedly began to pursue the enemy, appearing with his soldiers right under the walls of the capital of Lydia.
The second, decisive battle between the armies of Croesus and Cyrus took place in the vicinity of Sardis, on the wide Timbrian plain. It was a major battle, as a result of which the Lydians and their allies, the Egyptians, who came to their aid, suffered a crushing defeat. The remnants of the combined army took refuge behind the walls of Sardis. Although the city was well fortified, the Persians were able to find a secret path leading to the city's acropolis. In a surprise attack, they captured the fortress just two weeks after the siege began.
About the fate of King Croesus
After the fall of the Lydian capital, Croesus was captured by Cyrus. There are two versions regarding the further fate of the recently powerful and very rich king of Lydia Croesus.
According to one of them, Cyrus II first sentenced Croesus to be burned at the stake and then pardoned him. According to another, Croesus was executed.
Supporting the first version, Greek sources report that the former king of Lydia, Croesus, was not only pardoned by Cyrus, but also became his adviser.
Ivan Ivanovich Reimers. Grape harvest. 1862
Everyone knows that Lydia is a girl's name. But not everyone knows that Lydia is also an ancient country in Asia Minor and that the name “Lydia” means: “a native of the country of Lydia.”
This is a slave name. Noble Greeks and Romans had no time to remember the unusual names of eastern slaves. They simply shouted to the Syrian slave: “Hey, you, Sir!” To the Lydian slave: “Hey, you, Lydia!”
But that was later. And once Lydia was a strong state and the Lydians were not anyone’s slaves, but captured slaves themselves.
Along the eastern shore of the Aegean Sea, a narrow border lay the Greek cities: Smyrna, Ephesus, Miletus and others; among them is the birthplace of Herodotus, Halicarnassus. Further inland, a large plateau began, dissected by the valleys of the rivers: Germa and Meander. The Meander River meandered through its valley in such a way that artists still call the pattern of continuous curling curves a “meander.” The Lydians, daring horsemen and lovers of luxury, lived here.
Nicolas Poussin. Midas before Bacchus.
There was fertile land in the valleys, and gold-bearing streams flowed in the mountains. It was here that the greedy King Midas once reigned, who asked the gods that everything he touched would turn into gold. Because of this, he almost died of hunger, because even bread and meat in his hands became sparkling metal. Exhausted, Midas prayed for the gods to take his gift back from him. The gods told him to wash his hands in the Pactole stream. The magic went into the water, and the stream flowed in golden streams. The Lydians washed gold sand here and carried it to the royal treasuries in the capital city of Sardis.
It was they who were the first of the Asians to subjugate the nearby Greek cities - Smyrna, Ephesus, Miletus, and others.
To subjugate meant: the Lydians approached a Greek city, burned the fields around it, became a siege and waited until the townspeople began to suffer from hunger. Then negotiations began, the townspeople agreed to pay tribute, and the Lydian king retreated in victory.
Finally, all the coastal cities were subjugated, and Croesus was already thinking about subjugating the overseas cities - those on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Samos and others. But the sage Biant, the ruler of the Greek city of Priene, dissuaded him from this.
Here is how it was. Biant came to visit Croesus. Croesus received him cordially and asked: “What are the Greeks doing on the islands?” Biant replied: “They are preparing horses to go to war against Lydia.” Croesus knew that in horse battle his Lydians were invincible. He exclaimed: “Oh, that they would do so!” Then Biant said: “King, don’t you think that if the Greeks find out that you are preparing ships to go to war on their islands, they will also exclaim: “Oh, if only he had done so”? After all, just as your Lydians are skilled in horse combat, so the Greeks are skilled in naval combat, and you will not be able to cope with them.” Such a remark seemed reasonable to Croesus, and he decided not to go to war on the islands, and entered into an alliance with the inhabitants of the islands.
Croesus was already a powerful ruler. His kingdom occupied half of Asia Minor. His treasuries were bursting with gold. To this day, a rich man is jokingly called a “croesus.” His palace in Sardis shone with splendor and roared with merriment. The people loved him because he was kind, merciful and, as we saw, could take a joke.
Croesus considered himself the happiest man on earth.
One day, the wisest of the Greeks, the Athenian Solon, came to visit him, who gave his city the fairest laws. Croesus threw a magnificent feast in his honor, showed him all the wealth, and then asked him:
“Friend Solon, you are wise, you have traveled halfway around the world; tell me, who do you consider the happiest person on earth?”
Solon replied: “The Athenian Tell.”
Croesus was very surprised and asked: “Who is this?”
Solon replied: “A simple Athenian citizen. But he saw that his homeland was prospering, that his children and grandchildren were good people, that he had enough goods to live comfortably; and he died a heroic death in a battle where his fellow citizens were victorious. Isn’t this what happiness is?”
"Cleobis and Biton" Loire Nicolas
Then Croesus asked: “Well, after him, who do you consider the happiest on earth?”
Solon replied: “The Argives of Cleobis and Biton. These were two young strong men, the sons of the priestess of the goddess Hera. At the solemn festival, their mother had to drive up to the temple in a cart drawn by oxen. the bulls were not found in time, and the holiday had already begun; and then Kleobis and Biton themselves harnessed themselves to the cart and carried it eight miles, all the way to the temple. The people applauded and glorified the mother for such children, and the blessed mother prayed to the gods for the best happiness for Kleobis and Biton. And the gods sent them this happiness: at night after the holiday, they fell asleep peacefully in this temple and died in their sleep. To do the best thing in your life and die—isn’t that happiness?”
Then the annoyed Croesus asked directly: “Tell me, Solon, do you not value my happiness at all?”
Solon replied: “I see, king, that yesterday you were happy, and today you are happy, but will you be happy tomorrow? If you want to hear wise advice, here it is: do not call any person happy while he is alive. For happiness is changeable, and there are three hundred and sixty-five days in a year, and in a human life, counting it as seventy years, there are twenty-five thousand five hundred and fifty days, not counting leap days, and not one of these days is like the other.”
But this wise advice did not please Croesus, and Croesus chose to forget it.
source - Herodotus's stories about the Greco-Persian wars and much more
landscapes- Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665)