Realism is a trend in literature and art that truthfully and realistically reflects the typical features of reality, in which there are no various distortions and exaggerations. This direction followed romanticism, and was the predecessor of symbolism.
This trend originated in the 30s of the 19th century and reached its peak in the middle of it. His followers sharply denied the use of any sophisticated techniques, mystical trends or idealization of characters in literary works. The main feature of this direction in literature is the artistic representation of real life with the help of ordinary and familiar images to readers, which for them are part of their everyday life (relatives, neighbors or acquaintances).
(Alexey Yakovlevich Voloskov "At the tea table")
The works of realist writers are distinguished by a life-affirming beginning, even if their plot is characterized by a tragic conflict. One of the main features of this genre is the authors’ attempt to consider the surrounding reality in its development, to discover and describe new psychological, public and social relations.
Having replaced romanticism, realism has the characteristic features of an art that strives to find truth and justice, and wants to change the world for the better. The main characters in the works of realist authors make their discoveries and conclusions after much thought and deep introspection.
(Zhuravlev Firs Sergeevich "Before the Crown")
Critical realism developed almost simultaneously in Russia and Europe (approximately 30-40s of the 19th century) and soon emerged as the leading trend in literature and art throughout the world.
In France, literary realism is primarily associated with the names of Balzac and Stendhal, in Russia with Pushkin and Gogol, in Germany with the names of Heine and Buchner. All of them experience the inevitable influence of romanticism in their literary work, but gradually move away from it, abandon the idealization of reality and move on to depicting a broader social background, where the lives of the main characters take place.
Realism in Russian literature of the 19th century
The main founder of Russian realism in the 19th century is Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. In his works “The Captain's Daughter”, “Eugene Onegin”, “Belkin’s Tale”, “Boris Godunov”, “The Bronze Horseman”, he subtly captures and skillfully conveys the very essence of all the important events in the life of Russian society, presented by his talented pen in all its diversity , colorfulness and inconsistency. Following Pushkin, many writers of that time came to the genre of realism, deepening the analysis of the emotional experiences of their heroes and depicting their complex inner world (“Hero of Our Time” by Lermontov, “The Inspector General” and “Dead Souls” by Gogol).
(Pavel Fedotov "The Picky Bride")
The tense socio-political situation in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I aroused keen interest in the life and fate of the common people among progressive public figures of that time. This is noted in the later works of Pushkin, Lermontov and Gogol, as well as in the poetic lines of Alexei Koltsov and the works of the authors of the so-called “natural school”: I.S. Turgenev (cycle of stories “Notes of a Hunter”, stories “Fathers and Sons”, “Rudin”, “Asya”), F.M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “Crime and Punishment”), A.I. Herzen (“The Thieving Magpie”, “Who is to Blame?”), I.A. Goncharova (“Ordinary History”, “Oblomov”), A.S. Griboyedov “Woe from Wit”, L.N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”), A.P. Chekhov (stories and plays “The Cherry Orchard”, “Three Sisters”, “Uncle Vanya”).
Literary realism of the second half of the 19th century was called critical; the main task of his works was to highlight existing problems and address issues of interaction between man and the society in which he lives.
Realism in Russian literature of the 20th century
(Nikolai Petrovich Bogdanov-Belsky "Evening")
The turning point in the fate of Russian realism was the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, when this direction was experiencing a crisis and a new phenomenon in culture loudly declared itself - symbolism. Then a new updated aesthetics of Russian realism arose, in which History itself and its global processes were now considered the main environment shaping a person’s personality. The realism of the early 20th century revealed the complexity of the formation of a person’s personality, it was formed under the influence of not only social factors, history itself acted as the creator of typical circumstances, under the aggressive influence of which the main character fell.
(Boris Kustodiev "Portrait of D.F. Bogoslovsky")
There are four main trends in realism of the early twentieth century:
- Critical: continues the traditions of classical realism of the mid-19th century. The works place emphasis on the social nature of phenomena (the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy);
- Socialist: displaying the historical and revolutionary development of real life, analyzing conflicts in conditions of class struggle, revealing the essence of the characters of the main characters and their actions committed for the benefit of others. (M. Gorky “Mother”, “The Life of Klim Samgin”, most works by Soviet authors).
- Mythological: display and rethinking of real life events through the prism of plots of famous myths and legends (L.N. Andreev “Judas Iscariot”);
- Naturalism: an extremely truthful, often unsightly, detailed depiction of reality (A.I. Kuprin “The Pit”, V.V. Veresaev “A Doctor’s Notes”).
Realism in foreign literature of the 19th-20th centuries
The initial stage of the formation of critical realism in European countries in the mid-19th century is associated with the works of Balzac, Stendhal, Beranger, Flaubert, and Maupassant. Merimee in France, Dickens, Thackeray, Bronte, Gaskell - England, the poetry of Heine and other revolutionary poets - Germany. In these countries, in the 30s of the 19th century, tension was growing between two irreconcilable class enemies: the bourgeoisie and the labor movement, a period of growth was observed in various spheres of bourgeois culture, and a number of discoveries were taking place in natural science and biology. In countries where a pre-revolutionary situation developed (France, Germany, Hungary), the doctrine of the scientific socialism of Marx and Engels arose and developed.
(Julien Dupre "Return from the Fields")
As a result of complex creative and theoretical polemics with the followers of romanticism, critical realists took for themselves the best progressive ideas and traditions: interesting historical themes, democracy, trends in folklore, progressive critical pathos and humanistic ideals.
Realism of the early twentieth century, which survived the struggle of the best representatives of the “classics” of critical realism (Flaubert, Maupassant, France, Shaw, Rolland) with the trends of new non-realistic trends in literature and art (decadence, impressionism, naturalism, aestheticism, etc.) is acquiring new character traits. He addresses the social phenomena of real life, describes the social motivation of human character, reveals the psychology of the individual, the fate of art. The modeling of artistic reality is based on philosophical ideas, the author's focus is primarily on the intellectually active perception of the work when reading it, and then on the emotional one. A classic example of an intellectual realistic novel is the works of the German writer Thomas Mann “The Magic Mountain” and “Confession of the Adventurer Felix Krull”, the dramaturgy of Bertolt Brecht.
(Robert Kohler "Strike")
In the works of realist authors of the twentieth century, the dramatic line intensifies and deepens, there is more tragedy (the work of the American writer Scott Fitzgerald “The Great Gatsby”, “Tender is the Night”), and a special interest in the inner world of man appears. Attempts to depict conscious and unconscious moments of a person’s life lead to the emergence of a new literary technique, close to modernism, called “stream of consciousness” (works by Anna Segers, W. Keppen, Yu. O’Neill). Naturalistic elements appear in the work of American realist writers such as Theodore Dreiser and John Steinbeck.
Realism of the 20th century has a bright, life-affirming color, faith in man and his strength, this is noticeable in the works of American realist writers William Faulkner, Ernest Hemingway, Jack London, Mark Twain. The works of Romain Rolland, John Galsworthy, Bernard Shaw, and Erich Maria Remarque were very popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Realism continues to exist as a trend in modern literature and is one of the most important forms of democratic culture.
Critical realism- a direction in the art of a number of countries in Europe and America, which arose in the middle of the 19th century. At the same time, realism appeared in France as an important concept of aesthetic thought.
Critical realism is aimed at directly depicting the everyday life of people, mainly the poor and disadvantaged, contrasted with the wealthy and idle sections of the population. The first signs of critical realism can be seen in the paintings of the Italian Michelangelo Caravaggio and his followers - the “Caravaggists”, who showed at the end of the 16th and 17th centuries. keen interest in the life of the lower classes - beggars, vagabonds, robbers, often depicted in fascinating romantic and adventurous guises (painting by Salvatore Rosa, Alessandro Magnasco in Italy). In the 17th century Dutchman Jan Steen, in the 18th century. Italians Jacopo Ceruti and Gaspare Travers tried to portray without embellishment the unsightly aspects of the everyday life of their contemporaries. Artists of the Enlightenment of the 18th century. (William Cogart in England.) criticized the social foundations of society of those years from the point of view of reason and justice. The analysis of social contradictions in etchings and paintings was especially sharp and fearless Francisco Goya in Spain at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. In painting and graphics of the 1st half of the 19th century. ( Theodore Gericault, Eugene Delacroix in France) captures the dramatic conflicts of everyday reality with energy and passion. Social criticism itself became the dominant principle in the work of graphic artists in the 2nd third of the 19th century. - Honore Daumier, Fields of Gavarnie, Jean-Isidore Granville who turned to close study and analysis of deep social contradictions. Generalized images of the social forces of their time were created in the 19th century. artists Alexander Dekan, Gustave Courbet , Jean-Francois Mill e in France, Constantin Meunier in Belgium. Adolf Menzel, Wilhelm Leibl in Germany, Mihaly Munkacsi in Hungary. In Russia, critical realism became widespread already in the middle of the 19th century. The image of the “little man”, which arose in the works of A. S. Pushkin, I. V. Gogol, was embodied in the genre scenes of P. A. Fedotov, in the caricatures and illustrations of A. A. Agin, P. M. Boklevsky, N. A. Stepanova, P. M. Shmelkova, A. I. Lebedeva. In the 2nd half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. Itinerant artists made critical realism the main method of their art. V. G. Perov, G. G. Myasoedov, V. E. Makovsky, N. A. Yaroshenko, I. E. Repin, A. E. Arkhipov, N. A. Kasatkin, L. V. Popov in their paintings criticized the unjust social structure, following literature (I. S. Turgenev, L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky. A. P. Chekhov). The traditions of critical realism - satirical exposure and analysis of the social situation - were resurrected every now and then in Soviet times: in the satirical graphics of Kukryniksov, B. I. Prorokov, L. V. Soifertis, in the painting of E. M. Cheptsov, S. A. Adlivankin, S.V. Nikritina, G.M. Korzhev, and at the end of the 20th century. in sarcastic art sots art .
Realism
“We are not talking about the search for “absolute” beauty here. The artist is neither the history of painting nor its soul... And that is why he should not be considered either a moralist or a writer. He should be judged simply as an artist.”
Thomas Eakins became the most famous realist painter in the United States by incorporating photographic studies into his work and revealing the nature of his subjects through careful observation. The Gross Clinic (1875), a portrait of Dr. Samuel Gross performing invasive surgery in an operating room, is depicted in incredible detail. His choice of a modern subject (surgery) follows the realist belief that an artist must be of his time.
The German realist Wilhelm Leibl met Courbet and saw his work when the French artist visited Germany in 1869. Recognizing his abilities, Courbet lured him back to Paris, where Label achieved significant success and also met Manet before returning to Munich to establish himself as his country's first realist artist. He is best known for his depictions of peasant scenes such as Three Women in a Church (1881), which brought the frank naturalism of the Dutch and German Old Masters into the modern era. Although the somewhat outdated clothing the three women wear indicates their low economic status (the new trends of the city have passed them by), the label graces them with patience and modesty.
Christina's World, created by one of the leading American artists of the time, is among the most famous American paintings of the mid-20th century. It depicts a woman lying on a field, looking at a gray house on the horizon. The woman in the painting is Anna Christina Olson. She was Wyeth's neighbor in South Cushing, Maine, and suffered from muscle degeneration that left her unable to walk. Wyeth was inspired to create the masterpiece when he saw her crawling across the field from the window. Despite the fact that the first showing received little attention, the popularity of Christina's World grew over the years. The painting is now considered an icon of American art and one of the most important works of American realism.
4. “The Ear Pickers”
French name: Des glaneuses
Artist: Jean-Francois Millet
Year: 1857
Jean-François Millet's most famous works are his trio of paintings that depict humble peasants in an unprecedentedly heroic and compassionate manner. The Ear Gatherers is the most famous of the three paintings and influenced several later artists, including Pissarro, Renoir, Seurat and Van Gogh. It depicts three peasant women gleaning or collecting remnants from a field of scattered grains after the harvest. Portraying the lowest stratum of rural society in a sympathetic light, the painting was heavily criticized by the French upper classes when first shown. The painting measures 33 by 44 inches (84 x 112 cm), and this was a major point of contention as such a huge size was usually reserved for religious or mythological subjects.
3. "Funeral in Ornans"
French name: Un enterrement à Ornans
Artist: Gustave Courbet
Year: 1850
This painting depicts the funeral of Gustave Courbet's great-uncle in the small town of Ornans in France. Courbet "painted those people who were present at the funeral, all the townspeople." "Funeral at Ornans" caused a storm at the first exhibition at the Paris Salon of 1850-1851. Firstly, it is a huge work, measuring 10 by 22 feet (305 x 671 cm); such a huge scale was traditionally reserved for heroic or religious scenes in history painting; secondly, its ugly realism without any sentimental narrative shocked the art world. Initially condemned by critics, Funeral at Ornans was one of the main works that moved the public away from romanticism and towards a new realistic approach. It is considered one of the major turning points of 19th-century French art, and Courbet said: “The Funeral at Ornans was really the burial of Romanticism.”
2. Night Owls
Artist: Edward Hopper
Year: 1942
Edward Hopper known for revealing the loneliness of modern life and forcing the viewer to take a more active role in completing the narrative of the works. This painting of people at a downtown diner late at night was inspired by a restaurant on Greenwich Avenue, near the artist's home in Manhattan. It has been interpreted as an illustration of the negative impact of World War II, and as a depiction of the isolation of the individual against the backdrop of the hustle and bustle of New York City. Hopper's most famous work, Night Owls is one of the most recognizable paintings in American art. She influenced many future American artists and is widely referenced and parodied in popular culture.
1. Olympia
Artist: Edouard Manet
Year: 1863
Edouard Manet, although often considered an impressionist, called himself a realist. His early works include some of the most significant works of realism, among which is Olympia. The painting depicts a reclining naked woman being served by a maid. When it was first exhibited at the Paris Salon of 1865, it caused enormous controversy; not because of Olympia's nudity, but because there are several details in the painting that indicate she is a prostitute. These include: an orchid in the hair, a bracelet, pearl earrings and an oriental scarf on which it lies. In addition, the painting contains a black cat, which traditionally symbolized prostitution. Olympia was inspired by Titian's Venus of Urbino and several other paintings; but unlike these works, he did not depict a goddess or a court lady, but a high-class prostitute. The most famous aspect of the painting is Olympia's defiant gaze; which is often cited as the pinnacle of defiance against patriarchy. Manet's Olympia is the most famous realism painting and perhaps the most famous nude figure of the 19th century.
From: Sholokhova E., -
Realism as a literary movement
Literature is a constantly changing, continuously developing phenomenon. Speaking about the changes that have occurred in Russian literature in different centuries, it is impossible to ignore the topic of successive literary trends.
Definition 1
A literary direction is a set of ideological and aesthetic principles characteristic of the works of many authors of the same era.
There are a huge variety of literary trends. This includes classicism, romanticism, and sentimentalism. A separate chapter in the history of the development of literary movements is realism.
Definition 2
Realism is a literary movement that strives for an objective and truthful reproduction of the surrounding reality.
Realism tries to depict reality without distortion or exaggeration.
There is an opinion that in fact realism originated in the period of Antiquity and was characteristic of the works of ancient Roman and ancient Greek writers. Some researchers separately distinguish ancient realism and realism of the Renaissance.
Realism reached its highest point in both Europe and Russia in the middle of the 19th century.
Realism in Russian literature of the 19th century
Realism replaced the previously dominant romanticism in literature. In Russia, realism originated in the 1830s, reaching its peak by the middle of the century. Realist writers consciously refused to use any sophisticated techniques, mystical ideas or attempts to idealize a character in their works. Realists use ordinary, sometimes even everyday images, transferring the real person as she is onto the pages of their books.
As a rule, works written in the spirit of realism are distinguished by their life-affirming beginning. Unlike romantic works, in which the acute conflict between the hero and society rarely ended in anything good.
Note 1
Realism sought to find truth and justice, to change the world for the better.
Separately, it is worth highlighting critical realism, a direction that actively developed in the middle of the 19th century and soon became leading in literature.
The development of Russian realism is associated primarily with the names of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. They were among the first Russian writers who moved from romanticism to realism, to a reliable, rather than idealized, depiction of reality. In their works, the lives of the heroes for the first time began to be accompanied by a detailed and realistic social background.
Note 2
A.S. Pushkin is considered the founder of Russian realism.
Pushkin was the first to convey on the pages of his works the essence of the most important events in the life of a Russian person, presenting them as they were - vivid and, most importantly, contradictory. The analysis of the internal experiences of the characters deepens, the inner world becomes richer and wider, the characters themselves become more alive and close to real people.
Russian realism of the 19th century was characterized by increased attention to the socio-political life of Russia. At that time, the country was experiencing great changes and was on the verge of abolishing serfdom. The fate of the common people, the relationship between man and government, the future of Russia - all these themes are found in the works of realist writers.
The emergence of critical realism, the purpose of which was to address the most pressing problems, is directly related to the situation in Russia.
Some works of Russian realist writers of the 19th century:
- A.S. Pushkin - “The Captain’s Daughter”, “Dubrovsky”, “Boris Godunov”;
- M.Yu. Lermontov - “Hero of Our Time” (with features of romanticism);
- N.V. Gogol - “Dead Souls”, “The Inspector General”;
- I.A. Goncharov - “Oblomov”, “Ordinary History”;
- I.S. Turgenev - “Fathers and Sons”, “Rudin”;
- F.M. Dostoevsky - “Crime and Punishment”, “Poor People”, “Idiot”;
- L.N. Tolstoy - “Anna Karenina”, “Sunday”;
- A.P. Chekhov - “The Cherry Orchard”, “Man in a Case”;
- A.I. Kuprin - “Olesya”, “Garnet Bracelet”, “Pit”.
Realism in Russian literature of the 20th century
The turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was a time of crisis for realism. A new direction appeared in the literature of this time - symbolism.
Definition 3
Symbolism is a movement in art that was characterized by a desire for experimentation, a desire for innovation, and the use of symbolism.
Adapting to changing life circumstances, realism changed its focus. 20th-century realism drew attention to the complexity of human personality formation, the factors influencing this process, and, most importantly, the impact of history on the main character.
Realism of the 20th century was divided into several movements:
- Critical realism. Adherents of this movement adhered to the traditions of classical realism, laid down in the 19th century, and in their works they focused on the influence of society on the realities of life. This direction includes the works of A.P. Chekhov and L.N. Tolstoy;
- Socialist realism. Appeared during the era of the revolution and was typical for most works of Soviet authors;
- Mythological realism. This direction rethought historical events through the prism of legends and myths;
- Naturalism. Naturalist writers in their works depicted reality as truthfully and in detail as possible, and therefore often unsightly. Naturalistic are “The Pit” by A.I. Kuprin and “Notes of a Doctor” by V.V. Veresaeva.
Hero in realist literature
The main characters of realistic works, as a rule, reason a lot, analyzing the world around and the world within themselves. After much thought and deliberation, they make discoveries that help them understand these worlds.
Realistic works are characterized by psychologism.
Definition 4
Psychologism is an image of the hero’s rich inner world, his thoughts, feelings and experiences in a work.
The mental and ideological life of a person becomes the object of close attention of writers.
It is important to note that the hero of a realistic work is not the person he is in real life. This is in many ways a typical image, which is often richer than the personality of a real person, who depicts not so much an individual personality as the general patterns of life of a certain historical era.
But, of course, the heroes of realist literature are more similar to real people than others. They are so similar that they often “come to life” under the writer’s pen and begin to create their own destiny, leaving their creator as an outside observer.
At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher explains to students the essence of the concept of realism and talks about the concept of “natural school”. Next, the postulates of naturalism of the French writer Emile Zola are given, and the concept of social Darwinism is revealed. A detailed account is given of the features of Russian realism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the most significant works of Russian writers are examined and how they shape the literature of that period.
Rice. 1. Portrait of V. Belinsky ()
The key event for Russian realism in the mid-19th century was the publication of two literary collections in the 40s - the collection “Physiology of St. Petersburg” and “Petersburg Collection”. Both of them came with a foreword by Belinsky (Fig. 1), where he writes that Russia is disunited, there are many classes in it that live their own lives and know nothing about each other. People of different classes speak and dress differently, believe in God and earn their living. The task of literature, according to Belinsky, is to introduce Russia to Russia, to break down territorial barriers.
Belinsky's concept of realism had to go through many difficult trials. From 1848 to 1856 it was even forbidden to mention his name in print. Issues of Otechestvennye zapiski and Sovremennik with his articles were confiscated from libraries. Profound changes began in the very camp of progressive writers. The “natural school” of the 40s, which included a variety of writers - Nekrasov and A. Maykov, Dostoevsky and Druzhinin, Herzen and V. Dahl - was possible on the basis of a united anti-serfdom front. But by the end of the 40s, democratic and liberal tendencies intensified in it.
The authors spoke out against “tendentious” art, for “pure artistry”, for “eternal” art. On the basis of “pure art”, Botkin, Druzhinin and Annenkov united into a kind of “triumvirate”. They bullied Belinsky’s true students, such as Chernyshevsky, and in this they received support from Turgenev, Grigorovich, and Goncharov.
These individuals did not simply advocate the aimlessness and apolitical nature of art. They challenged the pointed bias that the Democrats wanted to give to art. They were satisfied with the outdated level of bias, although they barely came to terms with it during Belinsky’s lifetime. Their position was typically liberal, and they were later completely satisfied with the meager “glasnost” that was established as a result of the tsarist reform. Gorky pointed to the objectively reactionary meaning of liberalism in the conditions of preparation for the democratic revolution in Russia: “The liberals of the 1860s and Chernyshevsky,” he wrote in 1911, “are representatives of two historical trends, two historical forces, which from then until our time determine the outcome of the struggle for a new Russia.”
Literature of the mid-19th century developed under the influence of the concept of V. Belinsky and was called the “natural school”.
Emile Zola (Fig. 2) in his work “The Experimental Novel” explained that the task of literature is to study a certain period in the life of its heroes.
Rice. 2. Emile Zola ()
In his ideas about man, E. Zola relied on the research of the famous French physiologist C. Bernard (Fig. 3), who considered man as a biological being. Emile Zola believed that all human actions are based on blood and nerves, that is, biological motives of behavior determine a person’s life.
Rice. 3. Portrait of Claude Bernard ()
The followers of E. Zola were called social Darwinists. Darwin's concept is important for them: any biological individual is formed by adapting to the environment and fighting for survival. The will to live, the struggle for survival and the environment - all these principles will be found in the literature of the turn of the century.
Imitators of Zola appeared in Russian literature. For Russian realism-naturalism, the main thing was to photographically reflect reality.
Naturalist writers of the late 19th century were characterized by a new look at classes from the outside, a realistic presentation in the spirit of a psychological novel.
One of the most striking manifestos of literature of this time was the article by critic A. Suvorin (Fig. 4) “Our poetry and fiction,” which answered the questions “Do we have literature?”, “How to write?” and “What does the author need?” He complains that new people from the works of this time - representatives of different classes - are engaged in old activities familiar to literary heroes (falling in love, getting married, getting divorced), and for some reason the writers do not talk about the professional activities of the heroes. The writers do not know about the activities of the new heroes. The biggest problem writers face is ignorance of the material they are writing about.
Rice. 4. Portrait of Suvorin ()
“A fiction writer should know more or should choose one corner for himself as a specialist and try to become, if not a master, then a good worker,” wrote Suvorin.
At the end of the 80s, a new wave appeared in literature - M. Gorky, Marxists, a new idea of what sociality is.
Rice. 5. Collection of the partnership “Znanie” ()
“Knowledge” (Fig. 5), a book publishing partnership in St. Petersburg, organized in 1898-1913 by members of the Literacy Committee (K.P. Pyatnitsky and others) for cultural and educational purposes. Initially, the publishing house published mainly popular science books on natural science, history, public education, and art. In 1900 M. Gorky joined Znanie; at the end of 1902 he headed the publishing house after its reorganization. Gorky united realist writers around “Knowledge,” who reflected in their works the oppositional sentiments of Russian society. Having released in a short time the collected works of M. Gorky (9 vols.), A. Serafimovich, A.I. Kuprina, V.V. Veresaev, The Wanderer (S. G. Petrova), N.D. Teleshova, S.A. Naydenova and others, “Znanie” has gained fame as a publishing house targeting a wide democratic circle of readers. In 1904, the publishing house began publishing “Collections of the Knowledge Partnership” (40 books were published before 1913). They included works by M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhova, A.I. Kuprin, A. Serafimovich, L.N. Andreeva, I.A. Bunina, V.V. Veresaeva and others. Translations were also published.
Against the backdrop of the critical realism of the majority of the “Znanievites”, on the one hand, Gorky and Serafimovich, representatives of socialist realism, stood out, on the other, Andreev and some others, subject to the influences of decadence. After the revolution of 1905-07. this division has intensified. Since 1911, the main editing of the “Knowledge” collections passed to V.S. Mirolyubov.
Along with the publication of collected works of young writers and collections, the Znanie partnership published the so-called. “Cheap library”, in which small works of “knowledge” writers were published. In addition, on instructions from the Bolsheviks, Gorky published a series of socio-political pamphlets, including works by K. Marx, F. Engels, P. Lafargue, A. Bebel, etc. In total, more than 300 titles were published in the “Cheap Library” (total circulation - about 4 million copies).
During the years of reaction that came after the revolution of 1905-07, many members of the Knowledge partnership left book publishing. Gorky, forced to live abroad during these years, broke with the publishing house in 1912. M. Gorky's letters talk more and more about the timeliness of literature and its usefulness, that is, the need to develop the reader and instill in him the correct worldview.
At this time, not only writers, but also readers are divided into friends and foes. The main reader for Gorky and the Znanievites is a new reader (a working person, a proletariat who is not yet accustomed to reading books), and therefore the writer needs to write simply and clearly. The writer must be a teacher and leader for the reader.
The Znaniev concept in literature will form the basis of the concept of Soviet literature.
Since what is presented in a work of art must be clear and understandable, the main trope for Znanievo literature becomes allegory I (allegory, abstract concept illustrated by a specific object or image).
For each concept: “valor”, “faith”, “mercy” - there were stable images that were understood by readers. In this period of literature, such concepts as “stagnation” and “revolution”, the “old” and “new” world are in demand. Each of the stories of the partnership contains a key allegory image.
Another important feature of realism at the end of the 19th century is the appearance of writers from the provinces: Mamin-Sibiryak, Shishkov, Prishvin, Bunin, Shmelev, Kuprin and many others. The Russian province appears unknown, incomprehensible, and in need of study. The Russian outback of this time appears in two forms:
1. something motionless, alien to any movement (conservative);
2. something that preserves traditions and important life values.
The story “Village” by Bunin, “Uyezdnoye” by Zamyatin, the novel “Small Demon” by F. Sologub, stories by Zaitsev and Shmelev and other works that tell about the provincial life of that time.
- Naturalism ().
- "Natural school" ().
- Emile Zola ().
- Claude Bernard ().
- Social Darwinism ().
- Artsybashev M.P. ().
- Suvorin A.S. ().
Publishing house of the Znanie partnership
Paintings. Later changes occurred, mainly caused by significant social changes in society, which shifted the emphasis in the visual arts towards realism. Term realism appeared thanks to the French writer Champfleury in the mid-19th century, when the artist Gustave Courbet, after his work (The Artist's Workshop) was rejected at the World Exhibition in Paris, built his own tent next to the exhibition, and organized his own, called “Le Realism" (Le Realisme).
Artist's workshop
Characteristics
The style of realistic painting spread to almost all genres of fine art, including portraiture, landscape and history.
Favorite subjects for realist artists are scenes of rural and urban life, the life of the working class, scenes from the streets, coffee and clubs, as well as frankness in the depiction of bodies. Not surprisingly, the unusual method shocked many middle- and upper-class people in both France and England, where realism never caught on.
Parquet floor workers. Caillebotte.
The general trend of realism was the desire to move away from the “ideal,” as was customary in the depiction of ancient mythology by Renaissance masters. In this way, realists depicted ordinary people and situations. In this sense, the movement reflects a progressive and highly influential shift in the definition of the meaning of art in general. The style remains quite popular in our time, despite the fact that it became a harbinger of impressionism and pop art.
The first realists
Interesting representatives of early realism are: Jean-François Millet, Gustav Courbet, Honoré Daumier. In addition, it is worth mentioning Ilya Repin. Some of the works of this Russian master are recognized as outstanding in this genre.
Self-portrait of Courbet
20th century realism
After horrific wars, global depression, nuclear weapons testing and other events, 20th century realists had no shortage of subjects and ideas. In fact, modern realism manifested itself in a wide variety of forms, images and schools, influencing not only painting, but also other areas of art.
Verism (1890–1900)
This Italian term refers to the extreme realism common in Italy.
Silvestro Lega on the seashore
Precisionism (1920s)
A movement that originated in America. Precisionist enthusiasts painted scenes from urban and industrial environments in a Futurist manner. Among the prominent masters are Charles Sheeler, Georgia O'Keeffe and Charles Demuth.
Social realism (1920–1930)
Artists of the “social realism” genre described scenes from American life during the Great Depression and focused on ordinary issues and the complexities of everyday life.
Socialist realism in Russia (1925–1935)
A type of public art approved by Stalin during the industrialization of the country. Socialist realism glorified the new man and worker in the form of colossal murals, posters and other forms of art.
Surrealism (1920–1930)
Soft design. Dali.
The quirky art form has its roots in Paris. The Surrealists, whose ideas were initially based on the work of Sigmund Freud, sought to free the creative potential of the unconscious mind. There are two main types of surreal art - Fantasy (artists of this direction include Salvador Dali, Rene Magritte) and automatism (Juan Miro). Despite all the strangeness and relatively short peak of popularity, the style has a lasting influence on the present day. It is also worth noting magical realism, which combines images of everyday reality and fantasy.
American painting and regionalism (1925–1945)
Many artists, including Grant Wood (author of the popular American Gothic, written in this genre), John Stewart Curry, Thomas Hart Benton, Andrew Wyeth, and other artists, sought to embrace the specific imagery of America.
Photorealism emerged in the late 1960s, when some paintings became almost identical to photographs. The objects of the direction are banal and uninteresting objects, masterfully depicted by the artist. One of the first artists of the genre was Richard Estes. His work is amazing and gives insight into this movement.
Hyperrealism
In the early 1970s, a radical form of realist art emerged, also known as “super-realism” and “hyperrealism.”
Other directions
Of course, these are not all styles and subtypes of realism, since there are a huge number of subgenres, based, among other things, on the traditions and culture of a particular area.
Realism in painting updated: September 15, 2017 by: Gleb